The ancient world's experience of music is one of the more poignant areas of irretrievable loss. We have extensive theoretical documentation — scales, modes, rhythm systems, instrument descriptions — but the actual sounds are gone. The Seikilos epitaph and a handful of other notated fragments give us isolated moments, but the living tradition is lost.

Ancient Greek music theory developed one of the most sophisticated modal systems in history. The Greek modes — Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, and others — had specific ethical and emotional associations that were the subject of systematic philosophical analysis. Plato's Republic prescribes which modes are appropriate for different kinds of citizens; Aristotle's Politics discusses the educational and therapeutic uses of different modes.

The instrument that best symbolizes ancient Greek musical culture is the aulos — a double pipe played simultaneously, with a penetrating sound unlike anything in the modern orchestra. It accompanied tragedy, comedy, athletic competitions, religious ceremonies, and the symposium. The aulos player (auletes) was a professional musician; the skill required was considerable.

The lyre and the kithara — the stringed instruments associated with Apollo and with aristocratic amateur music-making — had a different cultural valence from the aulos. The distinction between the restrained, polyphonically-limited lyre and the emotionally powerful aulos mirrored the distinction between Apollonian and Dionysiac cultural values that Nietzsche later systematized.